GENERAL REVISION
I/ SPELLING
Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the
following
endings :
When we use these endings, there are sometimes
changes
in spelling:
The
ending is (es) when the word
ends in s, ss, sh, ch, x.
Example: bus/ buses miss/ misses wash/ washes
match/ matches box/ boxes
if a word ends in a consonant + (by,
ry, sy, vy, …):
An exception is : day/ daily, lay/
laid say/ said
Doubling
consonants: Sometimes, a word ends in
a vowel + a consonant like in:
Stop, plan, wet, thin, slip, prefer, regret
Before the endings (ing, ed, er, est), we
double the
consonant:
Stop_stopped,
stopping; thin_ thinner, thinnest.
BUT we do not double (y) or (w) at the
end
of words: stay_stayed; grow_
growing.
II/SYLLABLE DIVISION/
SOME RULES
III/ STRESS :
a stressed syllable is part of a
word that is pronounced longer and
louder than the other parts.
Example: open, winter precious
BUT : begin, forget,
believe, resume, occur, alarm,
result, again, perhaps,
event, advice
Example: difficult, organise,
sensitive
BUT:
remember together
professor
All words ending
in ‘ion’ are stressed on the
syllable before the last:
Example: division, examination,
tradition, revolution, illusion
IV/ REPORTED SPEECH
1/ REPORTED STATEMENTS:
When the reporting verb is in the present,
there is
no change in tense:
“ I’m a
teacher.” She says
that she is a teacher.
Here, we’ve used the present simple in both sentences
because the
reporting verb (say) is in the present.
BUT: When the reporting verb is in the past,
there are
always corresponding tenses to the ones used in the direct speech
simply
because we don’t report what happens but what happened.
Example:
“I am a
teacher”. She said
that she was a teacher.
Other verb forms also change:
Time and place references:
2/ REPORTED QUESTIONS
a) “WH” QUESTIONS:
After the reporting verb, we :
first, rewrite the
“wh” word
Second: rewrite the subject
Third:
rewrite the verb in the corresponding tense if the reporting verb
is
in the past.
b)
“YES/
NO”
QUESTIONS:
After the
reporting verb, we: first:
write if or whether
Second:
write the subject
Third: write the verb in
the corresponding tense.
3/
REPORTED INSTRUCTIONS AND REQUESTS/
ORDERS
a)
Affirmative
commands:
to + STEM
b)
Negative commands: not
to + STEM
V/ PASSIVE TENSES
Eg: Computers are shipped to many
countries.
The food
is being prepared.
* Past
Simple: was/ were + past
participle
Eg: The package was delivered
yesterday.
Eg:
The house was being painted when
I arrived.
Eg:
Over 20 models have been
produced.
Eg: We had been given visas for
three months.
Eg: The computer can be used.
VI/ CONDIRIONAL
SENTENCES
1/ IF CLAUSES
TYPE ONE: if + Present Simple, Future
Eg: If you don’t go to the doctor soon, the
problem
will get worse.
TYPE TWO: if
+
Past Simple, would + infinitive
Eg:
If I had time, I would call him.
TYPE
THREE: if + Past Perfect, would have +
past participle
Eg: If I hadn’t called, I wouldn’t have known
about
the meeting.
2/
THE USE OF “UNLESS”
Unless
+ affirmative verb is similar to if +
negative verb.
Eg: unless I hurry, I will miss the bus = If I
don’t
hurry, I will miss the bus.
VII/
PRONUNCIATION OF
THE FINAL “s”
VIII/
PRONUNCIATION OF
FINAL “ed”
IX/
PLURAL
General rule: singular + s
(girl__girls)
X/ RELATIVE CLAUSES
WHO/ WHICH/ THAT: when subject of
the relative
clause, I cannot omit them.
Eg: We know a lot of people who live
in London. Here, “ who” is subject and it can’t
be omitted.
When these relative pronouns are
object of the
relative clause, they can be
omitted.
Eg: The woman (who) I wanted to see
was away on
vacation. Here, “who” is object and it can be omitted.
WHOSE is used instead of his, her,
their
I/ SPELLING
Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the
following
endings :
| Noun+ s/es (plural) | Books, ideas, matches |
| Verb+ s/es (after he, she, it) | Works, enjoys, washes |
| Verb+ ing | Working, enjoying, washing |
| Verb+ ed | Worked, enjoyed, washed |
| Adjective+ er (comparative) | Cheaper, quicker, brighter |
| Adjective+ est (superlative) | Cheapest, quickest, brightest |
| Adjective+ ly (adverb) | Cheaply, quickly, brightly |
When we use these endings, there are sometimes
changes
in spelling:
- Nouns
and verbs +s/ es
The
ending is (es) when the word
ends in s, ss, sh, ch, x.
Example: bus/ buses miss/ misses wash/ washes
match/ matches box/ boxes
- words
ending in (y) like baby, carry, easy:
if a word ends in a consonant + (by,
ry, sy, vy, …):
| (Y) changes to (ie) before the ending (s): Baby/ babies story/ stories try/ tries country/ countries |
| (Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ed): Hurry/ hurried study/studied apply/ applied |
| (Y) changes to (i) before the endings (er and est) Easy/ easier, easiest lucky/ luckier, luckiest |
| (Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ly) Easy/ easily heavy/ heavily |
- (Y)
does not change
before (ing): hurriying tryinf - (Y)
does not change if the word ends in a vowel + y (ay, ey, oy, uy)
An exception is : day/ daily, lay/
laid say/ said
Doubling
consonants: Sometimes, a word ends in
a vowel + a consonant like in:
Stop, plan, wet, thin, slip, prefer, regret
Before the endings (ing, ed, er, est), we
double the
consonant:
Stop_stopped,
stopping; thin_ thinner, thinnest.
BUT we do not double (y) or (w) at the
end
of words: stay_stayed; grow_
growing.
II/SYLLABLE DIVISION/
SOME RULES
- one
syllable word is never divides: example: ill - when
the word has a prefix, divide the word
between the root and the prefix:
eg: mis/use - when
the word has a suffix, divide between the
root and the suffix: fee/ly - when
two consonants come between two vowels, the word is divided after
the
first consonant: of/ten - when
a consonant comes between two vowels, the
word is divided before the
consonant: mu/sic - when
two vowels come together and are pronounced
separately, the word is
divided between the two vowels: radi/o - when
a vowel is sounded alone in a word, it
forms a syllable: e/vent
III/ STRESS :
a stressed syllable is part of a
word that is pronounced longer and
louder than the other parts.
- Most
of 2 syllabic words are stressed on the
first syllable if it is not a
prefix.
Example: open, winter precious
BUT : begin, forget,
believe, resume, occur, alarm,
result, again, perhaps,
event, advice
- Most
of 3 syllabic words are stressed on the
first syllable of the root:
Example: difficult, organise,
sensitive
BUT:
remember together
professor
All words ending
in ‘ion’ are stressed on the
syllable before the last:
Example: division, examination,
tradition, revolution, illusion
IV/ REPORTED SPEECH
1/ REPORTED STATEMENTS:
When the reporting verb is in the present,
there is
no change in tense:
“ I’m a
teacher.” She says
that she is a teacher.
Here, we’ve used the present simple in both sentences
because the
reporting verb (say) is in the present.
BUT: When the reporting verb is in the past,
there are
always corresponding tenses to the ones used in the direct speech
simply
because we don’t report what happens but what happened.
Example:
“I am a
teacher”. She said
that she was a teacher.
| Present simple | Past simple |
| Present continuous | Past continuous |
| Present perfect simple | Past perfect simple |
| Present perfect continuous | Past perfect continuous |
| Past simple | Past perfect |
| Past continuous | Past perfect continuous |
| Past perfect | Past perfect (no possible change) |
| Past perfect continuous | Past perfect continuous (no possible change) |
Other verb forms also change:
| will | Would |
| can | Could |
| must | Had to |
| shall | Should |
| may | Might |
Time and place references:
| now | then |
| today | That day |
| here | There |
| this | That |
| tomorrow | The following day, the next day, the day after |
| Next week | The following week, the next week, the week after |
| yesterday | The previous day, the day before |
| Last week | The previous week, the week before |
| A week ago | A week before |
| tonight | That night |
| Last Sunday | The previous Sunday, the Sunday before |
2/ REPORTED QUESTIONS
a) “WH” QUESTIONS:
After the reporting verb, we :
first, rewrite the
“wh” word
Second: rewrite the subject
Third:
rewrite the verb in the corresponding tense if the reporting verb
is
in the past.
b)
“YES/
NO”
QUESTIONS:
After the
reporting verb, we: first:
write if or whether
Second:
write the subject
Third: write the verb in
the corresponding tense.
3/
REPORTED INSTRUCTIONS AND REQUESTS/
ORDERS
a)
Affirmative
commands:
to + STEM
b)
Negative commands: not
to + STEM
V/ PASSIVE TENSES
- Present
Simple : is or are + past participle
Eg: Computers are shipped to many
countries.
- Present
Continuous: is/are + being + past
participle
The food
is being prepared.
* Past
Simple: was/ were + past
participle
Eg: The package was delivered
yesterday.
- Past
continuous : was/ were + being +
past participle
Eg:
The house was being painted when
I arrived.
- Present
Perfect Simple : has/ have + been + past
participle
Eg:
Over 20 models have been
produced.
- Past
Perfect Simple: had + been + past participle
Eg: We had been given visas for
three months.
- Modals
(can, may…) modal + be + past participle
Eg: The computer can be used.
VI/ CONDIRIONAL
SENTENCES
1/ IF CLAUSES
TYPE ONE: if + Present Simple, Future
Eg: If you don’t go to the doctor soon, the
problem
will get worse.
TYPE TWO: if
+
Past Simple, would + infinitive
Eg:
If I had time, I would call him.
TYPE
THREE: if + Past Perfect, would have +
past participle
Eg: If I hadn’t called, I wouldn’t have known
about
the meeting.
2/
THE USE OF “UNLESS”
Unless
+ affirmative verb is similar to if +
negative verb.
Eg: unless I hurry, I will miss the bus = If I
don’t
hurry, I will miss the bus.
VII/
PRONUNCIATION OF
THE FINAL “s”
- The
final “s” is pronounced /s/ after: t, p, k,
f, th( ث) - The
final “s”
is pronounced /z/ after: d, b, g, m, n, r, v, l, th (ذ) - The
final “s” is pronounced /iz/ after: sh, ch,
s, z, ge, dge
VIII/
PRONUNCIATION OF
FINAL “ed”
- The
final “ed” is pronounced /id/ after: t, d - The
final “ed” is pronounced /d/ after: b, g, v,
ge, dge, z, m, n, w, l, r, y,
th - The
final “ed” is pronounced /t/ after: p, k, f,
sh, ch.
IX/
PLURAL
General rule: singular + s
(girl__girls)
- nouns
ending in s, z, x, sh, ch: add es
(box__boxes) - nouns
ending in a consonant + y: y changes to (i) and add es (spy__spies) - nouns
ending in f/ fe: change f/fe to (v) and
add es (life__lives)
X/ RELATIVE CLAUSES
WHO/ WHICH/ THAT: when subject of
the relative
clause, I cannot omit them.
Eg: We know a lot of people who live
in London. Here, “ who” is subject and it can’t
be omitted.
When these relative pronouns are
object of the
relative clause, they can be
omitted.
Eg: The woman (who) I wanted to see
was away on
vacation. Here, “who” is object and it can be omitted.
WHOSE is used instead of his, her,
their
